After the Mongols rode across the steppes of Asia and Eastern Europe and steppe nomads like the Magyars and Cumans became major military and cultural forces in Europe, the steppe nomads became notorious as foreign marauders who rode the steppes looking for plunder and riches, but they rarely stayed long after they got what they wanted. In reality, these groups represented vanguards of a massive nomadic horde that grew in ferocity and effectiveness as the centuries passed, and they were far more than mindless barbarians interested in violence alone in fact, contemporary sources reveal they were also interested in diplomacy and eventually integrated with their sedentary neighbors. The actual history of these groups makes sense considering there were steppe nomads like them that lived in the region thousands of years earlier, back to around the time the Copper Age transitioned into the Bronze Age. The Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia and the Levant are often referred to as the cradle of civilization because those lands hosted some of the worlds earliest complex societies began, but several hundred miles to the north, equally important advances in civilization were happening at the same time. North of the Caucus Mountains near the shores of the Black Sea on the Ukrainian-Russian steppes, the ancestors of Indo-European peoples were domesticating horses, dogs, and inventing the wheel in the late 5th and early 4th millennia BCE. A number of different localized proto Indo-European cultures formed at this time that eventually coalesced into the larger culture that is today known as the Yamnaya culture. From about 3400-2600 BCE, the Yamnaya culture stretched from southeastern Europe into central Asia, greatly affecting other contemporary cultures in Europe and the Near East. The hallmarks of Yamnaya culture adopted by other cultures in the Near East and Europe include the use of metal tools and weapons.
